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The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, People's Spring, Springtime of the Peoples〔Merriman, John, A History of Modern Europe: From the French Revolution to the Present, 1996, p 715〕 or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but reactionary forces regained control in each case, and the revolutions collapsed typically within a year. The revolutions were essentially democratic in nature with the aim of removing the old feudal structures and the creation of independent national states. The revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. Six factors were involved: widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership; demands for more participation in government and democracy; demands for freedom of press; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of nationalism; and finally, the regrouping of the reactionary forces based on the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, the church and the peasants.〔R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp v, 4〕 The uprisings were led by shaky ''ad hoc'' coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, introduction of parliamentary democracy in the Netherlands and the definitive end of the Capetian monarchy in France. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Italy, and the Austrian Empire, but did not reach Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, and most of southern Europe (Spain, Serbia,〔Serbia's Role in the Conflict in Vojvodina 1848-49, Ohio State University, http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/serbvio.htm〕 Greece, Montenegro, Portugal, the Ottoman Empire).〔Nor did it reach Spain, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman Empire. Evans and Strandmann (2000) p 2〕 ==Origins== The revolutions arose from such a wide variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century. Both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments. Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes. A popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants and the working urban poor. Large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles.〔Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, ''A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change'', Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415161118. pp. 295–296.〕 Additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia, planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland. Next, the middle classes began to agitate. Working-class objectives tended to fall in line with those of the middle class. Although Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, working in Brussels, had written ''The Communist Manifesto'' (published in German in London on February 21, 1848) at the request of the Communist League (an organization consisting principally of German workers), once they began agitating in Germany following the March insurrection in Berlin, their demands were considerably reduced. They issued their "Demands of the Communist Party in Germany" from Paris in March;〔"Demands of the Communist Party in Germany," ''Marx-Engels Collected Works'', vol 7, pp. 3ff (Progress Publishers: 1975–2005)〕 the pamphlet only urged unification of Germany, universal suffrage, abolition of feudal duties, and similar middle-class goals. The middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participations in the revolutions, however, differed. While much of the impetus came from the middle classes, much of the cannon fodder came from the lower. The revolts first erupted in the cities. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「revolutions of 1848」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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